Cartoons of mental illness after COVID-19A decalogue of good practices for a non-stigmatising visual representation

  1. Soria-Yenez, Meritxell 1
  2. Sapiña, Lucía 2
  3. Martí 2
  1. 1 Universitat de Lleida
    info

    Universitat de Lleida

    Lleida, España

    ROR https://ror.org/050c3cw24

  2. 2 Universitat de València
    info

    Universitat de València

    Valencia, España

    ROR https://ror.org/043nxc105

Revista:
Estudios sobre el mensaje periodístico

ISSN: 1988-2696

Año de publicación: 2024

Volumen: 30

Páginas: 233-245

Tipo: Artículo

DOI: 10.5209/ESMP.91907 DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openAcceso abierto editor

Otras publicaciones en: Estudios sobre el mensaje periodístico

Resumen

La salud mental de la población se ha agravado como consecuencia de la pandemia de COVID-19. Se ha demostrado que las personas con enfermedades mentales se enfrentan a la discriminación y el estigma. En este contexto, la comunicación es una herramienta esencial para hacer más visibles estas enfermedades y, más concretamente, las viñetas pueden desempeñar un papel relevante. Este artículo analiza 317 viñetas sobre salud mental. El estudio compara las viñetas publicadas antes y durante la pandemia para ver si hubo cambios, si se redujo el estigma y si se aplicaron directrices de buenas prácticas periodísticas a las viñetas. Los datos sugieren que se ha prestado más atención a los problemas de salud mental durante la pandemia, aunque muchos estereotipos y, por tanto, malas prácticas siguen predominando en las viñetas. En resumen, el humor gráfico demuestra su valor como herramienta de análisis de la actualidad y también como elemento para concienciar sobre los problemas de salud mental.  

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Abraham, L. (2009). Effectiveness of cartoons as a uniquely visual medium for orienting social issues. Journalism & Communication Monographs, 11(2), 117–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/152263790901100202
  • Akram, U., & Drabble, J. (2022). Mental health memes: Beneficial or aversive in relation to psychiatric symptoms? Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 2022, 9(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01381-4
  • Anderson, A. A., & Becker, A. B. (2018). Not just funny after all: Sarcasm as a catalyst for public engagement with climate change. Science Communication, 40(4), 524–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547018786560
  • Aragonès, E., López-Muntaner, J., Ceruelo, S., & Basora, J. (2014). Reinforcing stigmatization: Coverage of mental illness in Spanish newspapers. Journal of health communication, 19(11), 1248–1258. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2013.872726
  • Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Pavlova, M. A., & Piçarra, N. (2021). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): The impact and role of mass media during the pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 3649. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.2021.729238/BIBTEX
  • Barlattani, T., D'Amelio, C., Capelli, F., Mantenuto, S., Rossi, R., Socci, V., Stratta, P., Di Stefano, R., Rossi, A., & Pacitti, F. (2023). Suicide and COVID-19: A rapid scoping review. Annals of general psychiatry, 22(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-023-00441-6
  • Baumann, A. E. (2007). Stigmatization, social distance and exclusion because of mental illness: The individual with mental illness as a “stranger”. International Review of Psychiatry, 19(2), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260701278739
  • Berger, E. (2022) A collective trauma: Covid keeps its grip on mental health of many patients. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/27/covid-pandemic-mental-health.
  • Blanco, J. R., Cobos-Ceballos, M. J., Navarro, F., Sanjoaquin, I., Arnaiz de las Revillas, F., Bernal, E., Buzon-Martin, L., Viribay, M., Romero, L., Espejo-Perez, S., Valencia, B., Ibañez, D., Ferrer-Pargada, D., Malia, D., Gutierrez-Herrero, F. G., Olalla, J., Jurado-Gamez, B., & Ugedo, J. (2021). Pulmonary long-term consequences of COVID-19 infections after hospital discharge. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 27(6), 892–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2021.02.019
  • Blix, I., Birkeland, M. S., & Thoresen, S. (2021). Worry and mental health in the Covid-19 pandemic: Vulnerability factors in the general Norwegian population. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 928. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10927-1
  • Bou-Hamad, I., Hoteit, R., & Harajli, D. (2021). Health worries, life satisfaction, and social well-being concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic: Insights from Lebanon. PLOS ONE, 16(7), e0254989. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254989
  • Brasso, C., Bellino, S., Blua, C., Bozzatello, P., & Rocca, P. (2022) The impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on youth mental health: A narrative review. Biomedicines 10(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/BIOMEDICINES10040772
  • Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
  • Cambronero-Saiz, B., Gómez-Nieto, B., & Segarra-Saavedra, J. (2023). Efectos de las redes sociales en la salud mental durante la pandemia de COVID-19: Una revisión bibliográfica. Revista Española de Comunicación en Salud, 14(2), 74-84. https://doi.org/10.20318/recs.2023.7703
  • Carr, E. R., & Ponce, A. N. (2022). Supporting mental health recovery, citizenship, and social justice. Community Mental Health Journal, 58(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10597-021-00900-Y
  • Ceban, F., Ling, S., Lui, L. M. W., Lee, Y., Gill, H., Teopiz, K. M., Rodrigues, N. B., Subramaniapillai, M., Di Vincenzo, J. D., Cao, B., Lin, K., Mansur, R. B., Ho, R. C., Rosenblat, J. D., Miskowiak, K. W., Vinberg, M., Maletic, V., & McIntyre, R. S. (2022). Fatigue and cognitive impairment in post-COVID-19 syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 101, 93–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2021.12.020
  • Chatterjee, S. S., Barikar, C. M., & Mukherjee, A. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on pre-existing mental health problems. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 102071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102071
  • Cleary, A., Griffith, D. M., Oliffe, J. L., & Rice, S. (2023). Men, mental health, and suicide. Frontiers in sociology, 7, 1123319. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2022.1123319
  • Corinti, F., Pontillo, D., & Giansanti, D. (2022). COVID-19 and the infodemic: An overview of the role and impact of social media, the evolution of medical knowledge, and emerging problems. Healthcare, 10(4), 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/HEALTHCARE10040732
  • Creten, S., Heynderickx, P., & Dieltjens, S. (2022). The stigma toward dementia on Twitter: A sentiment analysis of Dutch language tweets. Journal of Health Communication, 27(10), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2022.2149904
  • De Angelis, G., Wells, G. A., Davies, B., King, J., Shallwani, S. M., McEwan, J., Cavallo, S., & Brosseau, L. (2018). The use of social media among health professionals to facilitate chronic disease self-management with their patients: A systematic review. Digital Health, 4, 2055207618771416. https://www.doi.org/10.1177/2055207618771416
  • Diaz-Campo, J., Cambronero-Saiz, B., & Chaparro-Domínguez, M. Á. (2023). Uso de twitter en la comunicación en salud: Una revisión sistemática. Revista Española de Comunicación en Salud, 14(1), 95-105. https://doi.org/10.20318/recs.2023.7049
  • Domínguez, M., Pineda, F., & Mateu, A. (2014). Life in a nutshell: Evolution of a migratory metaphor in Spanish cartoons. Media, Culture & Society, 36(6), 810–825. https:doi.org/10.1177/0163443714536973
  • Domínguez, M. (2015). On the Origin of Metaphors. Metaphor and Symbol, 30(3), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926488.2015.1049858
  • Domínguez, M., & Sapiña, L. (2022), She-Coronavirus: How cartoonists reflected women health workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 29(2). 282–297. https:doi.org/10.1177/13505068211048402
  • Duarte, M. Q., Santo, M. A. D. S., Lima, C. P., Giordani, J. P., & Trentini, C. M. (2020). COVID-19 and the impacts on mental health: A sample from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Ciencia & Saude Coletiva, 25(9), 3401–3411. https:doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232020259.16472020
  • DuBois, J. M., & Walsh, H. A. (2021). Living with mental health challenges: Personal stories of recovery from across the globe. Narrative Inquiry in Bioethics, 11(2), 141–145. https:doi.org/10.1353/nib.2021.0045
  • Giarelli, E., & Tulman, L. (2003). Methodological issues in the use of published cartoons as data. Qualitative Health Research, 13(7), 945–956. https:doi.org/10.1177/1049732303253545
  • Gisondi, M. A., Barber, R., Faust, J. S., Raja, A., Strehlow, M. C., Westafer, L. M., & Gottlieb, M. (2022). A deadly infodemic: Social media and the power of COVID-19 misinformation. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(2), e35552. https://doi.org/10.2196/35552
  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma. Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Simon & Schuster Inc.
  • Goldberg, D. S. (2017). On stigma & health. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 45(4), 475–483. https:doi.org/10.1177/1073110517750581
  • González-Blanco, L., Dal Santo, F., García-Álvarez, L., de la Fuente-Tomás, L., Moya Lacasa, C., Paniagua, G., Sáiz, P. A., García-Portilla, M. P., & Bobes, J. (2020). COVID-19 lockdown in people with severe mental disorders in Spain: Do they have a specific psychological reaction compared with other mental disorders and healthy controls? Schizophrenia Research, 223, 192–198. https:doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.07.018
  • Gruber, J., Prinstein, M. J., Clark, L. A., Rottenberg, J., Abramowitz, J. S., Albano, A. M., Aldao, A., Borelli, J. L., Chung, T., Davila, J., Forbes, E. E., Gee, D. G., Hall, G. C. N., Hallion, L. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Hofmann, S. G., Hollon, S. D., Joorman, J., Kazdin, A. E., … Weinstock, L. M. (2021). Mental health and clinical psychological science in the time of COVID-19: Challenges, opportunities, and a call to action. The American Psychologist, 76(3), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/AMP0000707
  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2013). Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 813–821. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069
  • Hildersley, R., Potts, L., Anderson, C., & Henderson, C. (2020). Improvement for most, but not all: Changes in newspaper coverage of mental illness from 2008 to 2019 in England. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 29, e177. https://doi.org/10.1017/S204579602000089X
  • Hisham, I. N., Townsend, G., Gillard, S., Debnath, B. and Sin J (2021) COVID-19: The perfect vector for a mental health epidemic. BJPsych Bulletin 45(6): 1. DOI: 10.1192/BJB.2020.60
  • Jakubauskiene, M. (2021). Mental health policy response to COVID-19: Lessons learned. European Journal of Public Health, 31(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/EURPUB/CKAB164.254
  • Kearns, C., & Kearns, N. (2020). The role of comics in public health communication during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine, 43(3), 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/17453054.2020.1761248
  • Kola, L., Kohrt, B. A., Hanlon, C., Naslun, J. A., Sikander, S., Balaji, M., Benjet, C., Cheung, E. Y. L., Eaton, J., Gonsalves, P., Hailemariam, M., Luitel, N. P., Machado, D. B., Misganaw, E., Omigbodun, O., Roberts, T., Salisbury, T. T., Shidhaye, R., Sunkel, C., … Patel, V. (2021). COVID-19 mental health impact and responses in low-income and middle-income countries: Reimagining global mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(6), 535. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00025-0
  • Labbé, F., Pelletier, C., Bettinger, J. A., Curran, J., Graham, J. E., Greyson, D., MacDonald, N. E., Meyer, S. B., Steenbeek, A., Xu, W., & Dubé, È. (2022). Stigma and blame related to COVID-19 pandemic: A case-study of editorial cartoons in Canada. Social Science & Medicine, 296, 114803. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2022.114803
  • Lopera-Mármol, M., Jiménez-Morales, M., & Jiménez-Morales, M. (2023). Representación narrativa de la depresión, el TPA y el TEA en Atypical, My Mad Fat Diary y The End of The F***ing World. Communication & Society, 36(1), 17–34.
  • Manchia, M., Gathier, A. W., Yapici-Eser, H., Schmidt, M. V., de Quervain, D., van Amelsvoort, T., Bisson, J. I., Cryan, J. F., Howes, O. D., Pinto, L., van der Wee, N. J., Domschke, K., Branchi, I., & Vinkers, C. H. (2022). The impact of the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic on stress resilience and mental health: A critical review across waves. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 55, 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EURONEURO.2021.10.864
  • Marroquín, B., Vine, V., & Morgan, R. (2020). Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Effects of stay-at-home policies, social distancing behavior, and social resources. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113419. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j. psychres.2020.113419
  • Martinez, A. G., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2016). Mental health stigma: Theory, developmental issues, and research priorities. In Developmental Psychopathology, (pp. 1–43). John Willey & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy420
  • Mastrotheodoros, S. (2022). The effects of Covid- 19 on young people’s mental health and psychological well-being An updated literature review. European Union. Council of Europe. https://pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/42128013/72351197/COVID-19+mental+health.pdf
  • Nwabueze, C. (2017). Framing of cartoons on Ebola virus disease in selected Nigerian dailies: A content analysis. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 2(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-1654.100047
  • Oexle, N., Mayer, L., & Rüsch, N. (2020). Suicide stigma and suicide prevention. Nervenarzt, 91(9), 779–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00115-020-00961-6
  • Pedreira Massa, J. L. (2020). Mental health and COVID-19 in children and adolescents: Psychopathologycal and public health approach. Revista Espanola de Salud Pública, 94, e202010141.
  • Penninx, B. W. J. H., Benros, M. E., Klein, R. S., & Vinkers, C. H. (2022). How COVID-19 shaped mental health: From infection to pandemic effects. Nature Medicine, 28(10), 2027. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41591-022-02028-2
  • Pierce, M., Hope, H., Ford, T., Hatch, S., Hotopf, M., John, A., Kontopantelis, E., Webb, R., Wessely, S., McManus, S., & Abel, K. M. (2020). Mental health before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal probability sample survey of the UK population. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(10), 883–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30308-4
  • Porta, M. (2008). A dictionary of epidemiology. Oxford University Press. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195314496.001.0001/acref-9780195314496-e-1373
  • Ramírez-Ortiz, J., Castro-Quintero, D., Lerma-Córdoba, C., Yela-Ceballos, F., & Escobar-Córdoba, F. (2020). Mental health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic associated with social isolation. Colombian Journal of Anesthesiology, 48(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.5554/22562087.e930
  • Robinson, J., Teh, Z., Lamblin, M., Hill, N. T. M., La Sala, L., & Thorn, P. (2021). Globalization of the #chatsafe guidelines: Using social media for youth suicide prevention. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 15(5), 1409–1413. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.13044
  • Rubinelli, S., Purnat, T. D., Wihelmk, E., Traicoff, D., Namageyo-Funa, A., Thomson, A., Wardle, C., Lamichhane, J., Briand, S., & Nguyen, T. (2022). WHO competency framework for health authorities and institutions to manage infodemics: Its development and features. Human Resources for Health, 20(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12960-022-00733-0
  • Rüsch, N., Angermeyer, M. C., & Corrigan, P. (2005). Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry, 20(8), 529–539). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.004
  • Saqib, K., Qureshi, A. S., & Butt, Z. A. (2023). COVID-19, mental health, and chronic illnesses: A syndemic perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3262. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043262
  • Sani, F., Herrera, M., Wakefield, J. R. H., Boroch, O., & Gulyas, C. (2012). Comparing social contact and group identification as predictors of mental health. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4), 781–790. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.2044-8309.2012.02101.X
  • Shurkin, J., Keogh, B., & Naylor, S. (2015). Science and culture: Cartoons to better communicate science. PNAS, 112(38), 11741–11742. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1515144112
  • Stuart, H. (2008). Fighting the stigma caused by mental disorders: Past perspectives, present activities, and future directions. World Psychiatry, 7(3), 185–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2008.tb00194.x
  • Stuart H. (2012). The stigmatization of mental illnesses. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 57(8), 455–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700801
  • The Lancet. (2022). Can we end stigma and discrimination in mental health? The Lancet, 400(10361), 1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01937-7
  • The Lancet Psychiatry. (2021). COVID-19 and mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(2), 87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00005-5
  • Time to Change. (2023). Guidelines: Media and mental health. https://www.time-to-change.org.uk [Website not available since May 2023]
  • Thornicroft, G., Rose, D., Kassam, A., & Sartorius, N. (2007). Stigma: Ignorance, prejudice or discrimination? The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(3), 192–193. https://doi.org/10.1192/BJP.BP.106.025791
  • University of Leicester. (2021). Covid in cartoons. https://le.ac.uk/covid-in-cartoons
  • Vansteenkiste, T., Morrens, M., & Westerhof, G. J. (2021). Images of recovery: A photovoice study on visual narratives of personal recovery in persons with serious mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal, 57(6), 1151–1163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-020-00746-w
  • Varga, T. V., Bu, F., Dissing, A. S., Elsenburg, L. K., Bustamante, J. J. H., Matta, J., van Zon, S. K. R., Brouwer, S., Bültmann, U., Fancourt, D., Hoeyer, K., Goldberg, M., Melchior, M., Strandberg-Larsen, K., Zins, M., Clotworthy, A., & Rod, N. J. (2021). Loneliness, worries, anxiety, and precautionary behaviours in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal analysis of 200,000 Western and Northern Europeans. The Lancet Regional Health - Europe 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2020.100020
  • Vargas, J. J., & Yébenes Cortés, M. P. (2023). Salud mental y cobertura mediática del COVID-19: una investigación de los efectos del manejo de la televisión y la interrelación eficiente de la ansiedad a través de la técnica dual: sufrimiento vs dolor, para la mejora del estrés generado por la pandemia. Vivat Academia, 156, 288–305. https://doi.org/10.15178/va.2023.156.e1464
  • Walsh, D. A. B., & Foster, J. L. H. (2021). A call to action. A critical review of mental health related anti-stigma campaigns. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 569539. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPUBH.2020.569539
  • Wang, Y., Shi, L., Que, J., Lu, Q., Liu, L., Lu, Z., Xu, Y., Liu, J., Sun, Y., Meng, S., Yuan, K., Ran M., Lu, L., Bao, Y., & Shi, J. (2021). The impact of quarantine on mental health status among general population in China during the COVID-19 pandemic. Molecular Psychiatry 26(9), 4813–4822. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-021-01019-y
  • Zavlis, O., Butter, S., Bennett, K., Hartman, T. K., Hyland, P., Mason, L., McBride, O., Murphy, J., Gibson-Miller, J., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Shevlin, M., Stocks, T. V. A., Vallières, F., & Bentall, R. P. (2021). How does the COVID-19 pandemic impact on population mental health? A network analysis of COVID influences on depression, anxiety and traumatic stress in the UK population. Psychological Medicine, 16, 1–9. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291721000635
  • WHO. (2020, February 11). WHO Director-General’s remarks at the media briefing on 2019-mCoV on 11 February 2020. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-2019-ncov-on-11-february-2020
  • WHO. (2020, April, 27). WHO Timeline – COVID-19. https://www.who.int/news/item/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19
  • WHO. (2020, September 23). Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation. https://www.who.int/news/item/23-09-2020-managing-the-covid-19-infodemic-promoting-healthy-behaviours-and-mitigating-the-harm-from-misinformation-and-disinformation
  • WHO. (2021, June 16). Suicide worldwide in 2019. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240026643
  • WHO. (2022, March 2). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide
  • WHO. (2022, March 2). Mental Health and COVID-19: Early evidence of the pandemic’s impact. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Sci_Brief-Mental_health-2022.1
  • WHO. (2023, January 8). Infodemic. https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1
  • WHO. (2023, May 5). WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing. https://www.who.int/news-room/speeches/item/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing---5-may-2023